Functional Groups

Ketone:
- they are carbon compounds
- they have a double bonded oxygen
- has the ending of -one
- the double bond can't be in the beginning or end
- the double bond has to be the lowest number possible

Aldehydes:
- double bonded oxygen
- at either the begging or ending of the parent chain

Alcohols:
- OH (hydroxyl)
- number of Carbons (meth,eth, etc...)
- has the ending of -nol
- phenol is an exception
- has an OH bonded to it
- numbering says where OH is
- more than one OH, add -diol, triol etc...

Ex: methanol

Halides:
- they contain halogens from group 17 (Bromine, Chlorine, Iodine, Fluorine
- the halogens have the ending of -o
- the numbers show where the halogens are

1 Chloroethane


1,2 dichloroethane

Ethers:
- have an ending of -er
- only contains oxygen
- always between 2 carbons
- not in alphabetical order, it's in numerical order
- starts with methyl


Amines:
- has the ending of -yl amine
- nitrogen is placed between each carbon




Amides:
- ends in -anamide
- has a double bonded oxygen and NH2



Nitros:
- starts with nitro-
- has a nitrogen with a double bonded oxygen
- has a single bond oxygen



Esters:
- there is an Oxygen in the parent chain
- double bonded O in side chain
- parent chain ends in -oate
- side chain and "O" sandwich a carbon


Carboxylic Acids:
- use the standard rules but change the parent chain ending to -oic acid
-has a double bonded O and an OH bonded to the first carbon

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mAjrnZ-znkY
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AYtXm7NizQA&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5ZK6nPPAbo&feature=related

By: KRYSTA DEL ROSARIO

Alicyclics and Aromatics

Alicyclics:

Carbon chains can form two types of closed loops.
Alicyclics are loops usually made with single bonds.
   -If the parent chain is a loop standard naming rules apply with one addition, 'cyclo' is added in front of the parent chain.

There are 3 different ways to draw organic compounds.

Example:

Cyclohexane

Complete Structural Diagram


Condensed Structural Diagram

Line Diagram

Numbering can start anywhere and go clockwise or counter-clockwise on the loop but side chain numbers must be the lowest possible number.

Loops can also be a side chain.
Same rules apply but the side chain is given a cyclo-prefix.

Aromatics:

Benzene (C6H6) is a cyclic hydrocarbon with unique bonds between the carbon atoms.
Structurally, it can be drawn with alternating double bonds.
Careful analysis shows that all 6 C-C bonds are identical and represent a 1.5 bond.

  This is due to e- resonance.
                                                                   e- are free to move all around the ring.
Aromatic Nomenclature

A Benzene molecule is given a special diagram to show its unique bond structure.
Benzene can be a parent chain or a side chain.
     -As a side chain, it's given the name phenyl

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BulW2otK854&feature=fvwrel
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OcUzxmCYFEE&feature=channel&list=UL

Alkenes & Alkynes (double and triple bonds)

Carbon can form double and triple bonds with other carbon atoms
When multiple bonds form fwer hydrogens are attached to the carbon atom.
Naming rules are almost the same as with alkanes.
      -The positive of the double/triple bonds always has the lowest number and is put in front of the parent chain. (base chain)
Double bonds (Alkenes) end in -ene.
Triple bonds (Alkynes) end in -yne.


Trans & Cis Butene:

If two adjacent carbons are bonded by a double bond AND have side chains on them, two possible compounds are possible.

  Trans 2 butene












 Cis 2 butene


http://www.launc.tased.edu.au/online/sciences/PhysSci/pschem/carbon/ch3ch3/ene_yne.htm
http://library.thinkquest.org/3659/orgchem/alkenes-alkynes.html

-Candace Chan

Organic Chemistry (Nomeclature)

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds.
      -Carbon forms multiple covalent bonds
Carbon compoundscan form chains, ring, or branches
      - Organic compounds have more than 17,000,000
      - There are less than 100,000 non-organic compounds.
The simplest organic compounds are made of carbon and hydrogen.

Examples of organic compounds:



Saturated compounds have no double or triple bonds.
Compounds with only single bonds are called Alkanes and always end in -ane.
   * If you don't remember what the ending is, you can remember that Alkanes ends in -ane.

Nomenclature:

There are 3 categories of organic compounds
   1) Straight Chains

   2) Cyclic Chains

   3) Aromatics


For now, we'll just focus on straight chains.
Straight Chains:

Rules for naming straight chain compounds:

1) Circle the longest continuous chain and name this as the base chain
    - meth, eth, prop, ...
2) Number the base chain so side chains have the lowest possible numbers.
3) Name each side chain using the -yl ending
4) Give each side chain the appropriate number.
     - If there is more than one identical side chain numbers/labels are slightly different
5) List side chains in alphabetical order.

http://www.ausetute.com.au/namsanes.html

-Candace Chan

Acid/Base and pH Scale

Every liquid you see will probably have either acidic or basic traits. Distilled water is just water. The positive and negative ions in distilled water are in equal amounts and cancel each other out. Most water you drink has ions in it. Those ions in solution make something acidic or basic. In your body there are small compounds called amino acids. Those are acids. In fruits there is something called citric acid.

Scientists use the pH to measure how acidic and basic a liquid is. The scale goes from 0-14. Acids are found between a number very close to 0 and 7. Bases are from 7 to 14.

hydrochloric acid- HCl
nitric acid- HNO3
sulphuric acid- H2SO4
phosphoric acid- H3PO4
ammonia- NH3
acetic acid- CH3COOH

Naming Bases:

-Cation and OH
-NaOH- sodium hydroxide
-Ba(OH)- barium hydroxide
-Na2HCO3- baking soda

H-OH= HOH (water)




http://www.neok12.com/Acids-and-Bases.htm
http://www.neok12.com/php/watch.php?v=zX065b7a045c5f527766556b&t=Acids-and-Bases
http://www.neok12.com/php/watch.php?v=zX4577735f75460c7c0d4f73&t=Acids-and-Bases

BY KRYSTA DEL ROSARIO :)

Polar and Non-Polar Solvents Lab

The objective of the lab was to find out if Glycerine is Polar or Non-Polar.
We took 6 tests tubes and filled 3 of them 1/3 of water. And the other 3 test tubes with 1/3 of paint thinner and put all 6 of the test tubes on a test tube rack so it'd be easier to compare.

Then we take the first 3 test tubes with water, take the first test tube and add salt into it. And then take the second one and add sugar. And then take the last one and add iodine crystals. And you do the same for the last the test tubes but with the paint thinner.

In this photo, the test tubes in the back is how everything looked. In order, the tubes were water/salt, paint thinner/salt, water/sugar, paint thinner/sugar, water/iodine crystals, paint thinner/ iodine crystals. Except for the paint thinner/iodine crystals one, it is in the beaker because we played around with it after. The second, fourth, and fifth tubes have undissolved solvents in it.










Results for the water filled test tubes:
Once the salt, sugar and iodine crystals were in their test tubes we took a stopper and put it on top of the test tube and inverted each one, one by one to see what would happen. We saw that the salt and the sugar dissolve into the water. The test tube with the iodine crystals did not dissolve.

Results for the paint thinner filled test tubes:
Once the salt, sugar and iodine crystals were in their test tubes we took a stopper and put it on top of the test tube and inverted each one, one by one to see what would happen. We saw that the salt and sugar did not dissolve into the paint thinner but the iodine crystals did.

After everything, we figures out that the polar solvents dissolved into the polar substances (water/sugar, water/salt). And the non-polar solvents into the non-polar substances(paint thinner/iodine crystals).

Then once everything was done, we got a beaker and filled half of it with water and poured the paint thinner/iodine crystals into it. They did not mix because water is polar and the iodine crystals/paint thinner is non-polar. Thus, the non-polar substance was just floating on top of the water. If you pour salt (polar) through it, it will not dissolve until it gets to the water(polar). SOOO COOL. IT LOOKED LIKE A LAVA LAMP!!

THIS IS HOW IT LOOKED!! As you can see, there are iodine crystals at the bottom because they did not fully dissolve in the paint thinner and cannot dissolve in the water. LOOKSSS LIKE A LAVA LAMPPP!! Coolest thing I ever saw. Just sayin'.


BY: KRYSTA DEL ROSARIO :D

Intermolecular Bonds

Types of Bonds

• intramolecular bonds exist within a molecule
  -ionic, covalent
• intermolecular bonds exist between molecules
  - the stronger the inter- bonds the higher the BP or MP
  - two types of intermolercular bonds: Varder Waals bonds and Hydrogen Bonds

Van der Waals Bonds

• based on electron distribution
• two categories
• 1. Dipole-Dipole bonds
  - If a molecule is polar the positive end of one molecule will be attracted to the negative end of another molecule

London Dispersion Forces (LDF)

• LDF is present in all molecules
• creates weakest bonds
• if a substance is non-polar Dipole-Dipole forces don't exist
• Electrons are free to move around and will randomly be grouped on one side of the molecule
• This creates a temporary dipole and can cause a weak bond to form
• the more electrons in the molecule, the stronger the LDF can be

Hydrogen Bonding

• If H is bonded to certain elements (F, O, or N) the bond is highly polar
• This forms a very strong intermolecular mbond

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PwveQxLLqD0

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=90q7xl3ndJ8

BY KRYSTA DEL ROSARIO :)

Polar Molecules

Polar Molecules:

- Polar molecules have an overall charge separation.
       -Polar molecules are usually the ones that are unsymmetrical.
       -Non-polar are molecules are the ones that are symmetrical.
-Molecular dipoles only happened when there are unequal sharing of electrons in a molecule


Predicting Polarity:

-If the molecular are symmetrical, the pull of e- is usually balanced.
-There are two ways that molecules could be unsymmetrical:
      -Different atoms
      -Different numbers of atoms



http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ra3gJJmHlmw
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mtRgeBSe1o8

-Candace Chan

Ion Concentration

Dissociation
- Ionic compound are made up of two parts (metal+non-metal)
   -Cation: positively charged particle
   -Anion: negatively charged particle

• When ionic compounds are dissolved in water, the cation and anion separate from each other
• This process is called dissociation
• When writing dissociation equation the atoms and charges must balance

The dissociation of Sodium Chloride is:

NaCl(s)-----> Na+(aq)+Cl-(aq)

Fe(OH)2----> Fe^2+ 2OH-

Na3(PO4)2--> 3Na+ + PO4^-3

Fe3 (PO4)2---> 3Fe^-2 + 2PO4^-3

If the volume does not change then the concentration of individual ions depends on the balanced coefficients in the dissociation equation.

Determine the [Na+] and [PO4^-3] in a 1.5 M solution of Na3PO4

Na3Po4---> 3Na+ + PO4^-3

1.5M                          1.5M

1.5M x 3/1 (need/have) = 4.5 [Na+]

Lithium Sulphate:

Li2^+O4^-2 ----> 2Li+ + SO4

2.5M                    5M        2.5M

For Lithium, it is 2.5 M x (need/have) 2/1 = 5M

SO4, it is 2.5 M x (need/have) 1/1= 2.5M

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_vulYxwVFbA

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aZKIeFiOP34

BY KRYSTA DEL ROSARIO :D

Titration

A titration is an experimental technique used to determine the concentration of an unknown solution.

Terms and Equipment:

• Buret- contains the known solution used to measure how much is added
• Stopcock- valve used to control the flow of solution
• Pipet- used to accurately measure the volume of unknown solution
• Erlenmeyer flask- container for unknown solution
• Indicator- used to identify the end point of the titration
• Stock solution- known solution

In a titration, to find the volume used, you must subtract the Final Reading from the Initial Reading. If the volume used from one trial is way off from the others, you need to ignore that trial. 

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C3JWsvY2Zb4

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFpFCPTDv2w

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WNIQnZOMyG8

BY KRYSTA DEL ROSARIO :D

Dilutions

• When two solutions are mixed the concentration changes
• Dilutions- the process of decreasing the concentration by adding a solvent (usually water)
• The amount of solute does not change
  n1=n2 (number of moles before= number of moles after)
• Because concentration is mol/L we can write C= n/V , n=CV, C1V1=C2V2

Determine the concentration when 100 mL of 0.1M HCl is diluted to a final volume of 400 mL

C1V1=C2V2

V1= 100 mL
C1= 0.10 M

V2= 400 mL

0.10 M X 100 mL= C1 X 400 mL

C1= 0.26 M

(100)(0.10)/400 = 0.025 M= C2

How much water must be added to 10.0 m: of 10.0 M Na2SO4 to give a solution with a concentration of 0.50 M? 

V1= 10 mL

C1=10.0 M

C2= 0.50 M

V2= 200 mL

(10.0)(10.0)/0.50= 200mL

ΔV= 200-10.0= 190 mL

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E7jyFd_BA60

BY KRYSTA DEL ROSARIO :)

Bonding: Bonds & Electronegativity

Types of Bonds:
        -There are three main types of bonds
           1)Ionic Bonds
                  - e- are tranferred from metal to nonmetal
           2) Covalent Bonds
                  -e- are shared between non-metals
           3) Metallic Bond 
                  - holds pure metals together by electrostatic attraction
Electronegativity:
        -Electronegativy is a measure of an atom's attraction for electrons in a bond.
            -Atoms with greater electronegativity attract e- more.
            -Polar covalent bonds form from an unequal sharing of e- while non polar covalent bonds form from equal sharing of e-.
Bonds:
        -The type of bond formed can be predicted by looking at the difference in electronegativity of the elements.
en > 1.7= ionic bonds
en<1.7= Polar covalent bonds
en=0= Non-polar covalent bonds
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R-zbdQxAhD4
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pLuXJQ_uHdE

-Candace Chan

Solution Stoichiometry

Solutions:

Solution are homogenous mixtures composed of a solute and a solvent.
     - Solute is the chemical present in lesser amount (whatever is dissolved)
     - Solvent is the chemical present in the greater amount.(whatever does the dissolving)
Chemicals dissolved in water are aqueous.
     -NaCl(aq)Molarity:

Molarity:

Concentration can be expressed in many different ways
    - Ex: g/L, mL/L, % by volume, % by mass, mol/L
The most common (in Chemistry 11&12) is mol/L(also can be M) which is also called Molarity.
    - mol/L= M
    -[HCl] = concentration of HCl

Examples:

What is the concentration of Copper(II) Chloride solution made from 0.50 mol of CuCl2 dissolved into 250 mL of water?

- Remember how to calculate Molarity. It's mol/L. You have moles and mL. Convert the mL to L by dividing by 1000 and divide the moles and litres together.

0.50 mol x   1      = 2.0 mol/L or 2.0 M
                 0.25L

A solution of Pb(NO3)2 has a concentration of 0.450 M. How many moles of solute are contained in 250 mL?

- To do this question, you must reverse the equation.

0.330 mol   x 0.250 L   = 0.0825 mol
            L            1

http://www.iun.edu/~cpanhd/C101webnotes/aqueoussolns/solstoic.html
http://www.chemcollective.org/stoich/solution_stoi.php
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uiEc5LcsGIg

-Candace

Energy and Percent Yield

• enthalpy is the energy stored in chemical bonds
• symbol of enthalpy is H
• units of Joules (J)
• change in enthalpy is  ΔH
• in exothermic reactions enthalpy decreases
• in endothermic reactions enthalpy increases

BY: KRYSTA DEL ROSARIO :)

Percent Yield

• the theoretical yield of a reaction is the amount of products that should be formed
• the actual amount depends on the experiment
• the percent yield is like a measure of success. (How close is the amount to the predicted amount?)
• Percent Yield= actual/theoretical x 100

If 47.7g of Urea are produced, determine the theoretical (predicted) yield of CO2.

What is the percent yield of CO2 if 12.0g is produced?

47.7 x 1mol/60g x 1/1 x 44g/1mol = 34.98 g

12/34.9.98 = 34%

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TKNxdL7DN1I

BY: KRYSTA DEL ROSARIO :) 

Limiting Reactants

• in chemical reactions, usually one one chemical gets used up before the other
• the chemical used up first is called the limiting reactant
• one it's used up the reaction stops
• limiting reactants determines the quantity of products formed
• to fine the limiting reactant assume one reactant is used up. Determine how much of this reactant is required

2.5 mol of CuSo4 reacts with 2.5 mol of NaNO3. Determine the L.R and calculate how many moles Na2SO4 are formed.

CuSO4+ 2NaNO3= Na2SO4+Cu(NO3)2

2.5mol (CuSO4) x 2/1 = 5.0 mol of NaNO3                    NaNO3 is L.R

2.5mol (NaNO3) x 1/2 = 1.25 mol Na2SO4

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LifU5WQJi-4&feature=fvst

BY: KRYSTA DEL ROSARIO :)

Other Conversions: Volume and Heat

As you did before, the conversion factor for volume is 22.4 L/mol
Heat can be used as a separate term in the chemical reactions
    -This is called enthalpy
    - Rxns that release heat are exothermic
    - Rxns that absorb heat are endothermic
Both can be use in stoichiometry

Examples:

If 5.0g of methane (CH4) decomposed, what volume of hydrogen would you have?

1) Balance your equation

CH4= C + 2H2

2) Start writing the equation out to find the volume of hydrogen

5.0g  x  1 mole    x  2   x    2g       = 0.31 g of hydrogen
                16 g         1       1 mol


http://www.chemteam.info/Stoichiometry/vol-vol-stoichiometry.html
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=84s2_zPQTUs

-Candace Chan

Stoichiometry Investigation

Today, we did the lab that needed to find the mass of the precipitate, which is stronium sulphate and copper (II0 nitrate. We separated the precipitate by filtering and drying it. Overall, we did well on the lab and it was a fun lab.

-Candace Chan :)

Mass to Mass Conversions

Mass to Mass Conversion only requires one more additional step from the stuff you've learned already.



Example:



???

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Q8HtHItjxI

-Candace Chan

Mole to Mass & Mass to Mole

- questions may contain an amount of moles and ask you to determine the mass.
- Converting moles to mass only requires one additional step.


Steps:

1) Write the equations of the given formula
2) Balance the equations

Example:

Zn + HCl = ZnCl2 + H2

Then balance the equation

Zn + 2HCl = ZnCl2 + H2

then let's say the mole od zinc was 3.5, what is the mass of hydrogen?

3.5 mol x

multiply it over what you need over what you have!!

3.5 mol x  1   
                 1

Then you multiply it by the molar mass of the element you need, in this case, you need to find the molar mass of hydrogen. (remember the subscripts)

3.5mol x 1 x   2          =
               1   1 mol

 Multiply the whole equation and you get:

3.5 mol x 1  x   2    = 7 grams of hydrogen
                1    1 mol

Easy right?
Wait, we're not done yet...let's do the reverse.

How many moles are there in barium nitrate are consumed when 2.55 grams of silver chloride completely reacts?

First, remember to write the balanced equation:

Ba(NO3)2 + 2AgCl = BaCl2 + 2AgNO3

You do the reverse now, you use the molar mass of what you have. I repeat, what you have:

2.55 grams x 1 mol    x
                     143.3 g

Then multiply it by what you need over what you have!:

2.55 grams x 1 mol   x    1  =  0.00890 moles
                       143.3 g     2

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JIw_BmFZdhI
http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=GCH4104

-Candace Chan

Mole to Mole Conversions

·         Coefficients in balanced equations tell us the number of moles reacted or produced

·         They can also be used as conversion factors

Example: 3X+Y=4Z

6 mol+2mol= 4Z

1.5 mol+0.5 mol= 1Z

6.15mol+2.05mol=4.1mol

v  WHAT YOU NEED OVER WHAT YOU HAVE

Ex: 7.2mol x 1/3

·         If 0.15 mol of methane are consumed in a combustion reaction, how many moles of CO₂ are produced?

1Ch₄+2O₂= 1CO₂+2H₂O

0.15mol x 1/1 = 0.15 mol of CO₂

·         How many moles of bauxite (Aluminum Oxide) are required to produce 1.8 mol of pure Aluminum?

2Al₂O₃= 4Al+3O₂

1.8 mol x 2/4 (what you need over what you have) = 0.9 mol of bauxide

·         When 1.5 mol of Copper reacts with Iron (II) Chloride, how many moles of Iron should be produced?

1Cl+1Fecl₂=1Fe+1CuCl₂

1.5 mol x 1/1 = 1.5 mol

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HdP3F9IAqpU

By: Krysta Del Rosario :)

Empirical Formula

·         Are the simplest formula of a compound

<!--[if !supportLists]-->·         <!--[endif]-->Show only the simplest ratios, not the actual atoms

<!--[if !supportLists]-->-          <!--[endif]-->The empirical formula for Chlorine gas is Cl

<!--[if !supportLists]-->-          <!--[endif]-->Dinitrogen tetraoxide empirical formula is NO2

<!--[if !supportLists]-->·         <!--[endif]-->Molecular formulas give the actual number of atoms

Example:

Molecular Formula	Empirical Formula
P4O10	P2O5
C10H22	C5H11
C6H18O3	C2H6O
C5H12O	C5H12O
N2O4	NO2

 

Atom	Mass	Molar Mass	Moles (mass/molar mass)	Smallest Moles (moles/smallest moles)	Ratio
C	0.576	12.0	0.048	0.048/0.012=4	4
H	0.120	1.0	0.120	0.120/0.012=10	10
O	0.192	16.0	0.012	0.012/0.012= 1	1

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfBcM3uvWfs

By: Krysta Del Rosario :)

Multistep Conversion

12.5 grams of Hydrogen (H2) are placed in a balloon at STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure = 0º C & 101.3 kPa). Determine it's volume.

1. First, use molar mass as your conversion factor and cancel accordingly.

-> 12.5 g of H2 x 1 mol
2.0 g*


*The mass in grams is 2.0 because there are hydrogen is diatomic.

2. Next, use molar volume as your conversion factor and cancel accordingly.

-> 12.5 g of H2 x 1 molx 22.4 L
2.0 g 1 mol

3. Alter your answer to have the appropriate number of significant digits.

-> There are 1.4 x 10² Liters in 12.5 grams of Hydrogen.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_KD0Qc7Jf5k&feature=related

-Candace Chan

Percent Composition

You can find the percentage of the chemical equation by:

1) Adding up the total of the molar mass
2) Divde each element's molar mass to the total molar mass
3) There is the percentage of the element

Example:

C8H18 = 114

C8 = 96 / 114 = 84%
H18= 18 / 114 = 16%
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xbEeyT8nK84

-Candace Chan

Density and Moles

Density:

- is a measure of mass per volume.
- is measured in g/mL or g/L
- Formula for density is
         

Example:

Oxygen has a density of 1.0 g/ml. Determine the mass of 11.5 mL of oxygen gas.

11.5 mL x 1.0 g      = 11.5 g
                  1 mL

How many moles are there in 11.5 mL of oxygen?

11.5 g x 1 mol   =  0.639 mol
                18 g


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=REtBibhIqfo


Density of gases:

The density of gases can vary with the temperture.
If the temperature is at STP, we can find density by "

Molar Mass
22.4 L/mol

Example:

32g/mol       = 1.4 g/ L
22.4L/mol

-Candace Chan